[27] Censors had several other duties as well, including the management of public contracts and the payment of individuals doing contract work for the state. While the term "plebeian magistrate" (magistratus plebeii) has been used as an approximation, it is technically a contradiction. Every year, two curule aediles and two plebeian aediles were elected. Since the censorship was the most prestigious of all offices, usually only former consuls were elected to it. In 217 BC, a law was passed that gave the popular assemblies the right to nominate dictators. [31] In addition, the emperor controlled the religious institutions, since, as emperor, he was always Pontifex Maximus, and a member of each of the four major priesthoods. Series: Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome, fascicule trois cent vingt-deuxième: Edition/Format: Thesis/dissertation: Thesis/dissertation : Government publication : FrenchView all editions and formats: Rating: Once the Interrex found a suitable nominee for the kingship, he presented this nominee to the senate for an initial approval. This was a religious ceremony that acted as the certification of the census, and was performed before the Centuriate Assembly. If the tribune was abroad, the plebeians in Rome could not enforce their oath to kill any individual who harmed or interfered with the tribune. When a magistrate believed that he had witnessed such an omen, he usually had a priest (augur) interpret the omen. [28] Quaestors were elected by the Tribal Assembly,[28] and the assignment of their responsibilities was settled by lot. [28] When an emperor was vested with the tribunician powers, his office and his person became sacrosanct,[28] and thus it became a capital offense to harm or to obstruct the emperor. [26] Once a census was complete, a purification ceremony (the lustrum) was performed by a censor, which typically involved prayers for the upcoming five years. The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and often assisted the higher magistrates. Throughout the year, one Consul was superior in rank to the other Consul, and this ranking flipped every month, between the two Consuls. [13] If one did not comply with the orders of a Plebeian Tribune, the Tribune could interpose the sacrosanctity of his person[14] (intercessio) to physically stop that particular action. [7], By virtue of his proconsular powers, the emperor held the same grade of military command authority as did the chief magistrates (the Roman consuls and proconsuls) under the republic. For example, two consuls always served together. While in the city of Rome, the consul was the head of the Roman government. Each dictator appointed a Master of the Horse (magister equitum or Master of the Knights), to serve as his most senior lieutenant. [6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. http://worldcat.org/entity/work/id/22530903 Imperii insignia, sella curulis und fasces : zur Repräsentation römischer Magistrate Open All Close All While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. It wasn't until after they lost the power to maintain order in the city, however, that they truly became powerless, and the office disappeared entirely during the 3rd century. Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. [18] Praetors administered civil law, presided over the courts, and commanded provincial armies. [19] Another magistrate, the Censor, conducted a census, during which time they could appoint people to the senate. Priest of Quirinus-Romulus. The powers of an emperor (his imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. [45] It declared "videant consules ne res publica detrimenti capiat" ("let the consuls see to it that the state suffer no harm") which, in effect, vested the consuls with dictatorial powers. [15], The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest-ranking ordinary magistrate. Since this did create problems for some magistrates, these magistrates occasionally had their command powers extended, which, in effect, allowed them to retain the powers of their office as a promagistrate.[15]. [36] While a tribune could veto any act of the senate, the assemblies, or the magistrates, he could only veto the act, and not the actual measure. Each Roman magistrate was vested with a degree of power. [24] Often the Dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment was resolved. In times of military emergency, a Roman Dictator was appointed for a term of six months. [Hans Beck; Antonio Duplá; Martin Jehne; et al] -- "The consulate was the focal point of Roman politics. A censor could reassign a citizen to a different tribe (a civil unit of division), or place a punitive mark (nota) besides a man's name on the register. The last ordinary dictator was appointed in 202 BC. [37], Tribunes, the only true representatives of the people, had the authority to enforce the right of Provocatio, which was a theoretical guarantee of due process, and a precursor to our own habeas corpus. This is why, for example, each consul was accompanied by twelve lictors outside the pomerium or six inside, whereas the dictator (as the Roman King before him) was accompanied by twenty four lictors outside the pomerium or twelve inside. Censeurs (Magistrature romaine) Rome -- Conditions économiques. Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" (potestas tribunicia) and the "proconsular powers" (imperium proconsulare). [8] If an individual was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. Tribunes, by virtue of their sacrosanctity as the representatives of the people, could veto anything or anyone. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" and the "proconsular powers". [18] The quaestors were assisted by scribes, who handled the actual accounting for the treasury. Examples include flogging, imprisonment, fines, mandating pledges and oaths, enslavement, banishment, and sometimes even the destruction of a person's house. The executive magistrates of the Roman Empire were elected individuals of the ancient Roman Empire. Technically they outranked all other ordinary magistrates (including consuls and praetors). [43] The dictator, while not elected by the people, was technically a magistrate since he was nominated by an elected consul. Each magistrate was vested with a degree of power, called "major powers" or maior potestas. In addition, a series of laws were passed, which placed additional checks on the power of the dictator. If a magistrate, an assembly or the senate did not comply with the orders of a tribune, the tribune could 'interpose the sacrosanctity of his person' (intercessio) to physically stop that particular action. [29] The Plebeian Council (principal popular assembly), under the presidency of a plebeian tribune, elected the two plebeian aediles. [8] Mark Antony abolished the offices of dictator and Master of the Horse during his Consulship in 44 BC, while the offices of Interrex and Roman censor were abolished shortly thereafter. [8] The traditional magistracies were only available to citizens of the senatorial class. [1] He was the chief executive, chief priest, chief lawgiver, chief judge, and the sole commander-in-chief of the army. The Tribal Assembly, while under the presidency of a higher magistrate (either a consul or praetor), elected the two curule aediles. Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens from the Gods (auspicia), which could be used to obstruct political opponents. Instead, they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. The Master of the Horse was also technically a magistrate, since he was nominated by the dictator. patrician, from the fall of the Kings. While the king could unilaterally declare war, for example, he typically wanted to have such declarations ratified by the popular assembly. [7] Only a magistrate with imperium could wear a bordered toga, or be awarded a triumph. [33] The chief Praetor in Rome, the urban praetor, outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury. [17] Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters, which was due, in part, to the fact that they held the highest ordinary grade of imperium (command) powers. [6] Two consuls were elected for an annual term (from January through December) by the assembly of Roman citizens, the Centuriate Assembly. [40][41] The dictator's power over the Roman government was absolute, as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate. [13] Sometimes, the case was brought before the College of tribunes, and sometimes before the Plebeian Council (popular assembly). If the senate voted in favor of the nominee, that person stood for formal election before the People of Rome in the Curiate Assembly (the popular assembly). [12] The Interrex then formally declared the nominee to be king. [but, in the next 100 years, only 32 families provided 90 plebeian consuls; INTERREX: served only five days [4] By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates[5] since they were elected only by the plebeians,[3] and as such, they were independent of all other powerful magistrates[clarify]. [23] The Dictator then appointed a Master of the Horse to serve as his most senior lieutenant. Two PLEBEIAN AEDILES were elected annually from among and by the plebeians, beginning (trad.) [42] A dictator's power was equivalent to that of the power of the two consuls exercised conjointly, without any checks on their power by any other organ of government. The most significant constitutional power that a magistrate could hold was that of "Command" (Imperium), which was held only by consuls and praetors. As part of the census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership. [16][17] Two Consuls were elected every year, and they had supreme power in both civil and military matters. Any resistance against the tribune was tantamount to a violation of his sacrosanctity, and thus was considered a capital offense. [18], The praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies,[20] and, eventually, began to act as chief judges over the courts. [1][2] When the king died, his power reverted to the Roman Senate, which then chose an Interrex to facilitate the election of a new king. [9] A magistrate had many ways with which to enforce this power. Praetors usually stood for election with the consuls before the assembly of the soldiers, the Centuriate Assembly. : first plebeian in 366 B.C. [16], Censors could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate. Originally two, ultimately 15. [9] The king sometimes deferred to precedent, often simply out of practical necessity. [12] After the nominee was elected by the popular assembly, the senate ratified the election by passing a decree. elected NOT by the People (Populus) but only by the Plebs, in the. Since the office could be easily abused (as a result of its power over every ordinary citizen), only former consuls (usually patrician consuls) were elected to the office. Any act by the censor that resulted in an expenditure of public money required the approval of the senate.[18]. While they had a curule chair, they did not have lictors, and thus they had no power of coercion. [1] As such, no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions. Paris : Sirey, 1968 (OCoLC)631090290: Document Type: Book: All Authors / Contributors: Georges Piéri A magistrate was required to look for omens while presiding over a legislative or senate meeting, and while preparing for a war. [3] If this obstruction occurred against a magistrate of a lower rank, then it was called intercessio,[2] where the magistrate literally interposed his higher rank to obstruct the lower-ranking magistrate. Thus, dictatorial appointments were tantamount to a six-month restoration of the monarchy, with the dictator taking the place of the old Roman king. power confined to the City and outward to the First Milestone. [22], Every five years, two censors were elected for an eighteen-month term. [9][10], The period between the death of a king, and the election of a new king, was known as the interregnum. [1] His power, in practice, was absolute. By claiming to witness an omen, a magistrate could justify the decision to end a legislative or senate meeting, or the decision to veto a colleague. [12] The check on the magistrate's power of Coercion was Provocatio, which was an early form of due process (habeas corpus). [18] The consul was the chief diplomat, carried out business with foreign nations, and facilitated interactions between foreign ambassadors and the senate. [28] The office was not on the cursus honorum, and therefore did not mark the beginning of a political career. Defined more broadly, however, imperium gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military, diplomatic, civil, or otherwise). or 400 (?) [21] Quaestors usually assisted the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces with financial tasks. [6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. Texte remanié de: Thèse--Histoire romaine--Université Marc-Bloch de Srasbourg, 1999. However, the power of Coercion outside the city of Rome was absolute. The new king then took the auspices (a ritual search for omens from the Gods), and was vested with legal authority (imperium) by the popular assembly.[12]. [2] Sometimes he submitted his decrees to either the popular assembly or to the senate for a ceremonial ratification, but a rejection did not prevent the enactment of a decree. During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to the emperor. Histoire du cens jusqu'à la fin de la République romaine. If they disobeyed the dictator, they could be forced out of office. [6] After they were elected, they were granted imperium powers by the assembly. 2 plebeians for the first time in 131 B.C. Since tribunes were technically not magistrates, they had no magisterial powers ("major powers" or maior potestas), and thus could not rely on such powers to veto. The king chose several officers to assist him,[9] and unilaterally granted them their powers. His power, in practice, was absolute. Often the dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment was resolved. Censors usually did not have to act in unison, but if a censor wanted to reduce the status of a citizen in a census, he had to act in unison with his colleague. If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates of equal rank, such as two praetors, then it was called par potestas (negation of powers). Only Roman citizens (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer magisterial powers (potestas) on any individual magistrate. [11] During the interregnum, the senate elected a senator to the office of Interrex[12] to facilitate the election of a new king. Sometimes the tribune brought the case before the College of tribunes or the Plebeian Council for a trial. An additional check over a magistrate's power was that of Provincia, which required a division of responsibilities. While the magistrate was in the city of Rome itself, however, he had to completely surrender his imperium, so that liberty (libertas) was maximized. Their lack of magisterial powers made them independent of all other magistrates, which also meant that no magistrate could veto a tribune. CONSULS 2, elected annually from 509 B.C. In addition, they did not have the power to convene the Roman Senate or Roman assemblies. When the king left the city, an Urban Prefect presided over the city in place of the absent king. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. The office of quaestor was considered the lowest-ranking of all major political offices. After 202 BC, extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the decree senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). After the censors had been elected, the Centuriate Assembly granted the new censors censorial power. [23] No other ordinary magistrate could veto a censor because no ordinary magistrate technically outranked a censor. [25] A censor had the ability to fine a citizen, or to sell his property,[25] which was often a punishment for either evading the census or having filed a fraudulent registration. 15.52 Roman Empire. [20] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and were vested with powers over the markets, and over public games and shows. [14], Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. [21] Since praetors held imperium powers, they could command an army. Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. [38] A tribune had to assess the situation, and give the magistrate his approval before the magistrate could carry out the action. While the consul Cicero and the contemporary historian Livy do mention the military uses of the dictatorship, others, such as the contemporary historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, mention its use for the purposes of maintaining order during times of plebeian unrest. [19] While abroad, the consul had absolute power over his soldiers, and over any Roman province. [43] Often, the dictator functioned principally as the master of the infantry (and thus the legions), while the Master of the Horse (as the name implies) functioned as the master of the cavalry. Their actions could not be vetoed by any magistrate other than a plebeian tribune, or a fellow censor. [1] Thus, both of these magistrates were referred to as "Extraordinary Magistrates". The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus,[28][29] as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate. Priest of Volturnus (Etruscan). [11] Omens could be discovered while observing the heavens, while studying the flight of birds, or while studying the entrails of sacrificed animals. in 494 B.C. first elected in 444 B.C., to meet plebeian demand to be included in chief magistracy, but without having to elect a plebeian to be consul; there were no consuls elected when Consular Tribunes were elected. Economic policy. [11] All senior magistrates (consuls, praetors, censors, and plebeian tribunes) were required to actively look for omens (auspicia impetrativa); simply having omens thrust upon them (auspicia oblativa) was generally not adequate. They had the power over public games and shows, and over the markets. [45], Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic, The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero, What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us, Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius, Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Executive_magistrates_of_the_Roman_Republic&oldid=947090545, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Gruen, E. S. "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974), This page was last edited on 24 March 2020, at 07:16. Since plebeian tribunes (as well as plebeian aediles) were technically not magistrates,[5] they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. The consuls presided over the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies, and had the ultimate responsibility to enforce policies and laws enacted by both institutions. [34] Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome. [1] Dictators had more "major powers" than any other magistrate, and thus they outranked all other magistrates; but were originally intended only to be a temporary tool for times of state emergency. As soon as that tribune was no longer present, the act could be completed as if there had never been a veto. [33] Under the empire, the plebeian tribunes remained sacrosanct,[34] and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies. After 202 BC, extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate") which suspended civil government, and declared something analogous to martial law. This, in effect, eliminated the monopoly that the aristocracy had over this power. This ranking flipped every month, between the two consuls. [18] While the consuls had supreme military authority, they had to be provided with financial resources by the Roman Senate while they were commanding their armies. [8], All magistrates had the power of coercion (coercitio), which was used by magistrates to maintain public order. john.p.adams@csun.edu. After they were elected, they were granted imperium powers by the assembly. [18], Tribunes could use their sacrosanctity to order the use of capital punishment against any person who interfered with their duties. Each magistrate could only veto an action that was taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of power. Thereafter in descending order came the censor (who, while the highest-ranking ordinary magistrate by virtue of his prestige, held little real power), the consul, the praetor, the curule aedile, and the quaestor. When the Roman Republic was founded in 509 BC, the powers that had been held by the king were transferred to the Roman consuls, of which two were to be elected each year. Up until 202 BC, dictators were often appointed to fight plebeian unrest. Magistrates of the republic were elected by the people of Rome, and were each vested with a degree of power called "major powers" (maior potestas). Paris : Sirey, 1968 (OCoLC)540583622 Online version: Pieri, Georges. Such duties included the authority to regulate public morality (Censorship) and to conduct a census. He was the chief priest, lawgiver, judge, and the sole commander of the army. The magistrates (magistratus) were elected by the People of Rome, which consisted of plebeians (commoners) and patricians (aristocrats). [28] The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that, under the republic, had been performed by the Roman censors. The executive magistrates of the Roman Republic were officials of the ancient Roman Republic (c. 510 BC – 44 BC), elected by the People of Rome. During the transition from republic to the Roman empire, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate back to the executive (the Roman Emperor). [34] The sacrosanctity of a tribune (and thus all of his legal powers) were only in effect so long as that tribune was within the city of Rome. The texts of enacted statutes and decrees of the Roman Senate were deposited in the treasury under the supervision of the quaestors. This gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military or otherwise). [2] He controlled all property held by the state, had the sole power to divide land and war spoils, was the chief representative of the city during dealings with either the Gods or leaders of other communities, and could unilaterally decree any new law. The executive magistrates of the Roman Republic were officials of the ancient Roman Republic (c. 510 BC – 44 BC), elected by the People of Rome. If a magistrate was threatening to take action against a citizen, that citizen could yell "provoco ad populum", which would appeal the magistrate's decision to a tribune. Politics and government; Tax collection. Aediles had wide-ranging powers over day-to-day affairs inside the city of Rome, and over the maintenance of public order. [22] When the Dictator's term ended, constitutional government was restored. [30] The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents. By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates[4] since they were elected only by the plebeians. Always a patrician. [5] The most important power was imperium, which was held by consuls (the chief magistrates) and by praetors (the second highest-ranking ordinary magistrate). [41] For a dictator to be appointed, the Roman Senate had to pass a decree (a senatus consultum), authorizing a Roman consul to nominate a dictator, who then took office immediately. [33] The plebeian aedile functioned as the tribune's assistant, and often performed similar duties as did the curule aediles (discussed above). [7] Throughout the year, one consul was superior in rank to the other consul. While a dictator could ignore the right of Provocatio, that right, as well as the plebeian tribune's independence, theoretically still existed during a dictator's term. By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates as they were elected only by the plebeians, but no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions. The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate. [20] Other praetors had foreign affairs-related responsibilities, and often acted as governors of the provinces. Often, they used this power to act as provincial governors. [21] Though they technically were not magistrates, the Plebeian Tribunes and the Plebeian Aediles were considered to be the representatives of the people. However, the emperor was not subject to the constitutional restrictions that the old consuls and proconsuls had been subject to. [35] On a couple of rare occasions (such as during the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus), a tribune might use a form of blanket obstruction, which could involve a broad veto over all governmental functions. [28] They also had the power to repair and preserve temples, sewers and aqueducts, to maintain public records, and to issue edicts. In ancient Rome, a magistratus was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judicial and executive powers. The Roman magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. In practice, he had no real restrictions on his power. first plebeians in 300 B.C. In many respects, he functioned more as a parallel magistrate (like an inferior co-consul) than he did as a direct subordinate. [Livy]. Economische politiek. Later, a law (one of the Leges Clodiae or "Clodian Laws") allowed a citizen to appeal a censorial nota.

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